查尔斯·莱尔的英文介绍

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For other people named Charles Lyell, seeCharles Lyell (disambiguation).Sir Charles Lyell, 1st Baronet,KtFRS(14 November 1797 – 22 February 1875) was a Britishlawyerand the foremostgeologistof his day. He is best known as the author ofPrinciples of Geology, which popularisedJames Hutton's concepts ofuniformitarianism– the idea that the earth was shaped by the same processes still in operation today. Lyell was also one of the first to believe that the world is older than 300 million years, on the basis of its geological anomalies. Lyell was a close and influential friend ofCharles Darwin.
Lyell was born inScotlandabout 15 miles north ofDundeein Kinnordy, nearKirriemuirinForfarshire(now inAngus). He was the eldest of ten children. Lyell's father, also named Charles, was a lawyer andbotanistof minor repute: it was he who first exposed his son to the study of nature.
The house/place of his birth is located in the north-west of theCentral Lowlandsin the valley of theHighland Boundary Fault. Round the house, in therift valley, is farmland, but within a short distance to the north-west, on the other side of the fault, are theGrampian Mountainsin theHighlands. His family's second home was in a completely different geological and ecological area: he spent much of his childhood atBartley Lodgein theNew Forest, England.
Lyell enteredExeter College, Oxfordin 1816, and attendedWilliam Buckland's lectures. He graatedB.A.second class in classics, December 1819, andM.A.1821. After graation he took up law as a profession, enteringLincoln's Innin 1820. He completed a circuit through rural England, where he could observe geological phenomena. In 1821 he attendedRobert Jameson's lectures in Edinburgh, and visitedGideon MantellatLewes, inSussex. In 1823 he was elected joint secretary of theGeological Society. As his eyesight began to deteriorate, he turned to geology as a full-time profession. His first paper, On a recent formation of freshwater limestone in Forfarshire, was presented in 1822. By 1827, he had abandoned law and embarked on a geological career that would result in fame and the general acceptance of uniformitarianism, a working out of the ideas proposed byJames Huttona few decades earlier.
In 1832, Lyell marriedMary Hornerof Bonn, daughter ofLeonard Horner(1785–1864), also associated with theGeological Society of London. The new couple spent their honeymoon in Switzerland and Italy on a geological tour of the area.
During the 1840s, Lyell traveled to theUnited StatesandCanada, and wrote two popular travel-and-geology books:Travels in North America(1845) andA Second Visit to the United States(1849). After theGreat Chicago Fire, Lyell was one of the first to donate books to help found theChicago Public Library. In 1866, he was elected a foreign member of theRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
Lyell's wife died in 1873, and two years later (in 1875) Lyell himself died as he was revising the twelfth edition ofPrinciples. He is buried in Westminster Abbey. Lyell was knighted (Kt), and later made a baronet (Bt), which is an hereditary honour. He was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society in 1858 and the Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society in 1866. Mount Lyell, the highest peak in Yosemite National Park, is named after him; the crater Lyell on the Moon and a crater on Mars were named in his honour; Mount Lyell in western Tasmania, Australia, located in a profitable mining area, bears Lyell’s name; and the Lyell Range in north-west Western Australia is named for him as well. The jawless fishCephalaspis lyelli, from the Old Red Sandstone of southern Scotland, was named by Louis Agassiz in honour of Lyell.
Career and major writings
Lyell had private means, and earned further income as an author. He came from a prosperous family, worked briefly as a lawyer in the 1820s, and held the post of Professor of Geology atKing's College Londonin the 1830s. From 1830 onward his books provided both income and fame. Each of his three major books was a work continually in progress. All three went through multiple editions ring his lifetime, although many of his friends (such as Darwin) thought the first edition of thePrincipleswas the best written.Lyell used each edition to incorporate additional material, rearrange existing material, and revisit old conclusions in light of new evidence.
Principles of Geology, Lyell's first book, was also his most famous, most influential, and most important. First published in three volumes in 1830–33, it established Lyell's credentials as an important geological theorist and propounded the doctrine. It was a work of synthesis, backed by his own personal observations on his travels.
The central argument inPrincipleswas thatthe present is the key to the past – a concept of theScottish EnlightenmentwhichDavid Humehad stated as all inferences from experience suppose ... that the future will resemble the past, andJames Huttonhad described when he wrote in 1788 that from what has actually been, we have data for concluding with regard to that which is to happen thereafter.Geological remains from the distant past can, and should, be explained by reference to geological processes now in operation and thus directly observable. Lyell's interpretation of geologic change as the steady accumulation of minute changes over enormously long spans of time was a powerful influence on the youngCharles Darwin. Lyell askedRobert FitzRoy, captain ofHMSBeagle, to search for erratic boulders on thesurvey voyage of theBeagle, and just before it set out FitzRoy gave Darwin Volume 1 of the first edition of Lyell'sPrinciples. When theBeaglemade its first stop ashore atSt Jago, Darwin found rock formations which seen through Lyell's eyes gave him a revolutionary insight into the geological history of the island, an insight he applied throughout his travels.
While inSouth AmericaDarwin received Volume 2 which considered the ideas ofLamarckin some detail. Lyell rejected Lamarck's idea of organicevolution, proposing instead Centres of Creation to explain diversity and territory of species. However, as discussedbelow, many of his letters show he was fairly open to the idea of evolution. In geology Darwin was very much Lyell's disciple, and brought back observations and his own original theorising, including ideas about the formation ofatolls, which supported Lyell's uniformitarianism. On the return of theBeagle(October 1836) Lyell invited Darwin to dinner and from then on they were close friends. Although Darwin discussed evolutionary ideas with him from 1842, Lyell continued to reject evolution in each of the first nine editions of thePrinciples. He encouraged Darwin to publish, and following the 1859 publication ofOn the Origin of Species, Lyell finally offered a tepid endorsement of evolution in the tenth edition ofPrinciples.
The frontispiece fromElements of Geology
Elements of Geologybegan as the fourth volume of the third edition ofPrinciples: Lyell intended the book to act as a suitable field guide for students of geology. The systematic, factual description of geological formations of different ages contained inPrinciplesgrew so unwieldy, however, that Lyell split it off as theElementsin 1838. The book went through six editions, eventually growing to two volumes and ceasing to be the inexpensive, portable handbook that Lyell had originally envisioned. Late in his career, therefore, Lyell proced a condensed version titledStudent's Elements of Geologythat fulfilled the original purpose.
Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Manbrought together Lyell's views on three key themes from the geology of theQuaternary Periodof Earth history: glaciers, evolution, and theage of the human race. First published in 1863, it went through three editions that year, with a fourth and final edition appearing in 1873. The book was widely regarded as a disappointment because of Lyell's equivocal treatment ofevolution. Lyell, a devout Christian, had great difficulty reconciling his beliefs withnatural selection.
Scientific contributions
Lyell's geological interests ranged fromvolcanoesand geological dynamics throughstratigraphy,paleontology, andglaciologyto topics that would now be classified asprehistoric archaeologyandpaleoanthropology. He is best known, however, for his role in popularising the doctrine ofuniformitarianism.
An aerial photo of Vesuvius
Before the work of Lyell, phenomena such as earthquakes were understood by the destruction that they brought. One of the contributions that Lyell made inPrincipleswas to explain the cause of earthquakes.Lyell, in contrast focused on recent earthquakes (150 yrs), evidenced by surface irregularities such as faults, fissures, stratigraphic displacements and depressions.　　Lyell's work on volcanoes focused largely onVesuviusandEtna, both of which he had earlier studied. His conclusions supported graal building of volcanoes, so-called backed up-building, as opposed to the upheaval argument supported by other geologists.
Stratigraphy
Lyell's most important specific work was in the field ofstratigraphy. From May 1828, until February 1829, he traveled withRoderick Impey Murchison(1792–1871) to the south ofFrance(Auvergne volcanic district) and toItaly. In these areas he concluded that the recent strata (rock layers) could be categorized according to the number and proportion of marine shells encased within. Based on this he proposed dividing theTertiaryperiod into three parts, which he named thePliocene,Miocene, andEocene. He also renamed the traditionalPrimary,SecondaryandTertiaryperiods (now callederas) toPaleozoic,MesozoicandCenozoic, which nomenclature was graally accepted worldwide.
Glaciers
Lateral moraine on a glacier joining the Gorner Glacier, Zermatt, Switzerland.
InPrinciples of Geology(first edition, vol. 3, Ch. 2, 1833) Lyell proposed thaticebergscould be the means of transport forerratics. During periods of global warming, ice breaks off the poles and floats across submerged continents, carrying debris with it, he conjectured. When the iceberg melts, it rains down sediments upon the land. Because this theory could account for the presence of diluvium, the worddriftbecame the preferred term for the loose, unsorted material, today calledtill. Furthermore, Lyell believed that the accumulation of fine angular particles covering much of the world (today calledloess) was a deposit settled from mountain flood water. Today some of Lyell's mechanisms for geologic processes have been disproven, though many have stood the test of time. His observational methods and general analytical framework remain in use today as foundational principles in geology.

Evolution
Lyell first received a copy of one ofLamarck's books fromMantellin 1827, when he was on circuit. He thanked Mantell in a letter which includes this enthusiastic passage:
I devoured Lamark... his theories delighted me... I am glad that he has been courageous enough and logical enough to admit that his argument, if pushed as far as it must go, if worth anything, would prove that men may have come from theOurang-Outang. But after all, what changes species may really undergo!... That the Earth is quite as old as he supposes, has long been my creed...Charles Darwin
In the second volume of the first edition ofPrinciplesLyell explicitly rejected themechanismof Lamark on thetransmutation of species, and was doubtful whether species were mutable.However, privately, in letters, he was more open to the possibility ofevolution:
If I had stated... the possibility of the introction or origination of fresh species being a natural, in contradistinction to a miraculous process, I should have raised a host of prejudices against me, which are unfortunately opposed at every step to any philosopher who attempts to address the public on these mysterious subjects.
This letter makes it clear that his equivocation on evolution was, at least at first, a deliberate tactic. As a result of his letters and, no doubt, personal conversations,HuxleyandHaeckelwere convinced that, at the time he wrotePrinciples, he believed new species had arisen by natural methods. BothWhewellandSedgwickwrote worried letters to him about this.
Later,Darwinbecame a close personal friend, and Lyell was one of the first scientists to supportOn the Origin of Species, though he did not subscribe to all its contents. Lyell was also a friend of Darwin's closest colleagues,HookerandHuxley, but unlike them he struggled to square his religious beliefs with evolution. This inner struggle has been much commented on. He had particular difficulty in believing innatural selectionas the main motive force in evolution.
Alfred Russel Wallacein 1862.
Lyell and Hooker were instrumental in arranging the peaceful co-publication of the theory of natural selection by Darwin andAlfred Russel Wallacein 1858: each had arrived at the theory independently. Lyell's data onstratigraphywere important because Darwin thought that populations of an organism changed slowly, requiring geologic time.
Although Lyell did not publicly accept evolution (descent with modification) at the time of writing thePrinciples,after the Darwin–Wallace papers and theOriginLyell wrote in his notebook:
May 3, 1860: Mr. Darwin has written a work which will constitute an era in geology & natural history to show that... the descendants of common parents may become in the course of ages so unlike each other as to be entitled to rank as a distinct species, from each other or from some of their progenitors.
Lyell's acceptance of natural selection, Darwin's proposed mechanism for evolution, was equivocal, and came in the tenth edition ofPrinciples. The Antiquity of Man(published in early February 1863, just before Huxley'sMan's place in nature) drew these comments from Darwin to Huxley:
I am fearfully disappointed at Lyell's excessive caution and The book is a mere 'digest' .
Quite strong remarks: no doubt Darwin resented Lyell's repeated suggestion that he owed a lot toLamarck, whom he (Darwin) had always specifically rejected. Darwin's daughter Henrietta (Etty) wrote to her father: Is it fair that Lyell always calls your theory a modification of Lamarck's?
In other respectsAntiquitywas a success. It sold well, and it shattered the tacit agreement that mankind should be the sole preserve oftheologiansandhistorians.But when Lyell wrote that it remained a profound mystery how the huge gulf between man and beast could be bridged, Darwin wrote Oh! in the margin of his copy.