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Rapping developed both inside and outside of hip hop since Jamaican expatriate Kool Herc first began doing his dancehall toasting in New York in the 1970s. In the 1980s, the success of groups like Run-DMC led to a huge wave of commercialized rap music. By the end of the 1990s, hip hop became widely accepted in mainstream music. Underground Hip-hop rapping from the 2000s has complex rhythms, cadences, an intricate poetic form, and inventive wordplay. Rap lyrics convey the street life from which hip hop originally emerged with references to popular culture and hip-hop slang. Although rap has become an international phenomenon, many types of rap deal with issues such as race, socioeconomic class, and gender.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History
o 1.1 Roots
o 1.2 1970s
o 1.3 1980s
o 1.4 1990s
o 1.5 2000s
* 2 Writing
o 2.1 Rhyme styles
o 2.2 Literary technique
o 2.3 Diction & Dialect
o 2.4 Subject matter
* 3 Performance
o 3.1 Flow
o 3.2 Freestyle rapping
o 3.3 Battle rapping
* 4 Social Impact
o 4.1 Race & Class
o 4.2 Gender and sexuality
o 4.3 Derivatives and influence
o 4.4 Regional variations
+ 4.4.1 France
+ 4.4.2 Portugal
+ 4.4.3 UK
+ 4.4.4 Greece
* 5 See also
* 6 Sources
* 7 Further reading
[edit] History
Main article: History of hip hop
See also: African American music, Music of the United States, History of poetry, Jamaican music, and Caribbean music
[edit] Roots
See also: Roots of hip hop and Talking blues
Rapping in hip hop music can be traced back in many ways to its African roots. Centuries before the United States existed, the griots (folk poets) of West Africa were rhythmically delivering stories over drums and sparse instrumentation. Because of the time that has passed since the griots of old, the connections between rap and the African griots are widely established, but not clear–cut. However, such connections have been acknowledged by rappers, modern day "griots", spoken-word artists, mainstream news sources, and academics.[2][3][4][5]
Blues music, rooted in the work songs and spirituals of slavery and influenced greatly by West African musical traditions, was first played by blacks (and some whites) in the Mississippi Delta region of the United States around the time of the Emancipation Proclamation. Grammy-winning blues musician/historian Elijah Wald and others have argued that the blues were being rapped as early as the 1920s.[6][7] Wald went so far as to call hip hop "the living blues."[6]
The Memphis Jug Band, an early blues group, whose lyrical content and rhythmic singing predated rapping.
The Memphis Jug Band, an early blues group, whose lyrical content and rhythmic singing predated rapping.
Jazz, developed from the blues and other African-American musical traditions, originated around the beginning of the 20th century. According to John Sobol, the jazz musician and poet who wrote Digitopia Blues, rap "bears a striking resemblance to the evolution of jazz both stylistically and formally."[8]
During the mid-20th century, the musical culture of the Caribbean was constantly influenced by the concurrent changes in American music. In the 1950s through the 1970s, the descendants of Caribbean slaves in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago were mixing their traditional folk music styles of mento and Calypso music with the jazz, soul, rock and blues of America.. In Jamaica this influenced the creation of Reggae music (and later Dancehall), while in Trinidad, this influenced the creation of Soca. As early as 1969, Deejays were toasting (an African tradition of "rapped out" tales of heroism) over bbed Jamaican beats. It was called rap, expanding the word's earlier meaning in the African-American community— "to discuss or debate informally."[9]
[edit] 1970s
The bbed dancehall toasts of Jamaica, as well as the disco-rapping and jazz-based spoken word beat poetry of the United States set the template for the rapping in hip hop music. Gil Scott-Heron, a Jazz Poet and Bluesman who wrote and released such seminal songs as The Revolution Will Not Be Televised, H2OGate Blues Part 2: We Beg Your Pardon America and Johannesberg, has been cited as an influence on many rappers. One of the first rappers in hip hop was also hip hop's first DJ— Kool Herc. Herc, a Jamaican immigrant, started delivering simple raps at his parties in the early 1970s. As Herc would explain in a 1989 interview, "[t]he whole chemistry came from Jamaica. I was listening to American music in Jamaica, and my favorite artist was James Brown. When I came over here I just had to put it in the American style."[10] Although rapping in hip hop began with the DJs, most rappers today don't DJ or proce on a regular basis; Coke La Rock is cited by Kool Herc as the first example of such a rapper.[11] By the end of the 1970s, hip hop had spread throughout New York, and was getting some radio play. Rappers were increasingly writing songs that fit pop music structures and featured continuous rhymes. Melle Mel (of The Furious Five) stands out as one of the earliest rap innovators.
[edit] 1980s
See also: Old school hip hop and Golden age hip hop
From the 1970s to the early 1980s, Melle Mel set the way for future rappers through his sociopolitical content as well as his creative wordplay. Hip hop lyricism saw its biggest change with the popularity of Run-DMC's Raising Hell in the mid-1980s, known especially for the rap/rock collaboration with rock band Aerosmith in the song "Walk This Way". This album helped set the tone of toughness and lyrical prowess in hip hop; Run-DMC were almost yelling their aggressive lyrics.
The 1980s saw a huge wave of commercialized rap music, that with it brought success and international popularity. Rap music transcended its original demographic and passed in to the suburbs. Rap music in this time kept its original fan base in the 'ghetto' while attracting interest from mainstream consumers. This decade also saw the emergence of what we now know as old school hip hop talented artists such as Run DMC, LL Cool J, Public Enemy and the first white rap band the Beastie Boys. This decade is also referred to as the Golden age hip hop by modern music historians. Rap in the early 1980s centered mostly around self promotion e.g. the amount of gold worn or one's prowess with females, however in 1987 Public Enemy introced a more socio-political edge with their debut album Yo! Bum Rush the Show. Other artists such as The Jungle Brothers looked to Africa for inspiration. In 1987 the rap group N.W.A. released their first album entitled N.W.A. and the Posse, and included rap stars Dr. Dre, Ice Cube, Eazy E, and MC Ren. This release marked the first shift from the golden age to the ensuing ages of Gansta rap and G-Funk.
[edit] 1990s
See also: Golden age hip hop and Gangster rap
Rap in the 1990s saw a substantial change in direction in the style of rapping. Where the 1980s were characterized by verses mostly constrained to straightforward structures and rhyme schemes, rappers in the 1990s explored deviations from those basic forms, freeing up the lyrical flow and switching up the patterns to create a much more fluid and complex style. The style on the East coast became more aggressive, a style pioneered by Ghostface Killah and Notorious B.I.G., while West coast hip-hop became more laid-back, funky, and smooth, as made popular by Dr. Dre and 2pac.
Audio samples of the roots of rapping
* Deep down in my heart (file info) — [Play media] play in browser (beta)
o A spiritual performed by W. M. Givens in Darien, Georgia in 1926.
* Dollar Mamie (file info) — [Play media] play in browser (beta)
o A Southern work song performed by Judge "Bootmouth" Tucker and Alexander "Neighborhood" Williams in 1939.
* Small Talk at 125th and Lenox (file info) — [Play media] play in browser (beta)
o Gil Scott Heron's spoken word poetry has had a significant influence on hip hop through its political and socially conscious lyrics.
* Problems playing the files? See media help.
In terms of subject matter, the 1990s saw a shift from personal promotion and glorification to narratives of street experience and darker social observation, although this shift was more pronounced on the East coast than it was on the West. Rappers like the Guru of Gang Starr and Raekwon the Chef of the Wu-Tang Clan wove a new hip-hop lexicon out of Five Percenter terminology and personal experience that continues to dominate the lyrics of many MCs to this day.
The 1990s were marked by a tense rivalry between MCs of the East and West coast, including a feud between Sean "Puffy" Combs' Bad Boy Records in the East, including the Notorious B.I.G., and Dr. Dre and Suge Knight's Death Row Records (including 2pac and Snoop Dogg). Freestyling became a skill that demonstrates an MC's versatility and creativity, but also as a verbal "el" or "spar". The mid 1990s were marked by the violent deaths of Tupac Shakur, Notorious B.I.G., Freaky Tah, and Big L (among others). By the end of the 1990s, hip-hop became widely accepted in mainstream music.
[edit] 2000s
Main article: New school hip hop
The genre of rap and hip-hop in its modern iteration is increasingly influenced by other musical forms. Notably, remixes of existing hits with current notable rappers has become an increasing trend. The influence of rap has increased internationally, with independent styles, such as Grime, Trip Hop, and Hyphy. Southern and midwestern rap has also gained increasing popularity and penetrated the coastal markets on a large scale for the first time. Along with the increasing commercialisation of rap and hip-hop culture, this has led to many artists such as Nas to claim that "hip-hop is dead", echoing the common ironic refrain from self-identified Punks that Punk is dead.
[edit] Writing
Audio samples of rapping
* Planet Rock (file info) — [Play media] play in browser (beta)
o Hip hop pioneer Afrika Bambaataa mixed electro with old school rapping and beats in what is sometimes called "electro hop." Bambaata, the DJ, is also the rapper in this song— after all, the first rapping in hip hop was done from behind the turntables.
* The Message (file info) — [Play media] play in browser (beta)
o Written and rapped in 1982 by Melle Mel of the Furious Five, this song, more than any other to date, established rap as a vehicle for sociopolitical commentary. Note, however, the simple cadence and flow that were characteristic of the old school era.
* Niggas Bleed (file info) — [Play media] play in browser (beta)
o Notorious BIG tells vivid stories about his everyday life as a criminal in Brooklyn. Note the constant changing up of the lyrical flow and cadence characteristic of new school hip hop.
* Problems playing the files? See media help.
[edit] Rhyme styles
See also: Rhyme scheme
Aside from 'flow' (the voice and tone of a particular MC), and rhythmic delivery, the only other central element of rapping is rhyme. In classical poetry, rhymes that span many syllables are often considered whimsical, but in hip hop the ability to construct raps with large sets of rhyming syllables is valued. Rap can contain any and all forms of rhyme found in classical poetry such as consonance, assonance, half rhyme, or internal rhyme. Rappers are known for their style of rhyming. Juelz Santana often avoids full rhymes in favor of assonance, consonance, half rhymes, and internal rhymes. Eminem, on the other hand, often focuses on complex and lengthy multisyllabic rhyme schemes, while "flowas" like Rakim use metaphorical, emotional, rhyming, and story telling to communicate a message.
[edit] Literary technique
Main article: Literary technique
Rappers use double entendres, alliteration, and all other forms of wordplay that are also found in classical poetry. Similes and metaphors are used extensively in rap lyrics; rappers such as Fabolous and Lloyd Banks have written entire songs wherein every line contains a simile or metaphor.
Hip hop lyrics often make passing references to popular culture and other topics. An example is the song Wu-Tang Clan Ain't Nuthing Ta F' Wit by the Wu-Tang Clan, in which RZA rhymes,
"I be tossin', enforcin', my style is awesome
I'm causin more Family Feuds than Richard Dawson
And the survey said - you're dead
Fatal flying guillotine chops off your *in' head"
Such allusions serve to illustrate or exaggerate a statement, or are simply used for humour. Some of these reference are overtly political, while others simply acknowledge, credit, or show dismay about aspects of the rapper's culture and life.
[edit] Diction & Dialect
Many hip hop listeners believe that a rapper's lyrics are enhanced by a complex vocabulary. Kool Moe Dee claims that he appealed to older audiences by using a complex vocabulary in his raps.[12] Rap is famous, however, for having its own vocabulary— from international hip hop slang to local/regional slang. Some artists, like the Wu-Tang Clan, develop an entire lexicon among their clique. African American Vernacular English has always had a significant effect on hip hop slang, and vice-versa. Certain regions have introced their unique regional slang to hip hop culture, such as the Bay Area (Mac Dre, E-40), Houston (Chamillionaire, Paul Wall), Atlanta (OutKast, Lil Jon, T.I.), and Kentucky (Nappy Roots). The Nation of Gods and Earths, a religious/spiritual group spun off from the Nation of Islam, has influenced mainstream hip hop slang with the introction of phrases such as "word is bond" that have since lost much of their original spiritual meaning.
West Coast rapper Snoop Dogg performing for the US Navy
West Coast rapper Snoop Dogg performing for the US Navy
Preference toward one or the other has much to do with the indivial; GZA, for example, prides himself on being very visual and metaphorical but also succinct, where underground rapper MF DOOM is known for heaping similes upon similes. In still another variation, 2Pac was known for saying exactly what he meant, literally and clearly.
[edit] Subject matter
See also: Concept rap
Hip hop music originated in New York City in the 1970s, and continues to focus largely on metropolitan centers in the East and West coasts of America. Many rappers use urban culture as the backdrop for their raps, focusing on the hardships of inner-city life. One element that has always existed in rapped rhymes, dating back to hip hop's inception, is "the struggle". This struggle was originally financial or personal in nature; getting a girlfriend, or paying the rent. With "The Message", a concept rap written by Melle Mel and performed by Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five, the idea of "the struggle" was put in another context: the shared hardships of the ghetto.
The roots of these sociopolitical raps are in the beat poetry of The Last Poets and Gil Scott Heron. "The Message" pioneered the inclusion of political content in hip hop rhymes, expanding beyond basic personal issues and party raps. In the golden age of hip hop, Public Enemy emerged, with a focus on political and social issues. Modern East Coast hip hop artists such as Mos Def, Talib Kweli, Jay-Z, Nas, and dead prez are known for their sociopolitical subject matter. Their West-coast counterparts include Emcee Lynx, The Coup, Paris, and Michael Franti.
Other rappers take a less critical approach to urbanity, sometimes even embracing such aspects as crime. Schoolly D was the first notable MC to rap about crime.[13] Several years later, he would go on to influence Ice T, who had more overtly "gangsta" lyrics. Gangsta rap, made popular largely because of N.W.A.. Early on KRS-One was accused of celebrating crime and a hedonistic lifestyle, but after the death of his DJ, Scott La Rock, KRS–ONE went on to speak out against violence in hip hop and has spent the majority of his career condemning violence and writing on issues of race and class.
Various politicians, journalists, and religious leaders, have accused rappers of fostering a culture of violence and hedonism among hip hop listeners through their lyrics.[14][15][16]
In contrast to the hedonistic approach of the gangsta rappers, some rappers have a spiritual or religious focus. Christian rap is currently the most commercially successful form of religious rap. Aside from Christianity, the Five Percent Nation, a gnostic religious/spiritual group, has been represented more than any religious group in popular hip hop. Hip-hop artists such as Rakim, the members of the Wu-Tang Clan, Brand Nubian, X Clan, Busta Rhymes, and Nas, have had success in spreading the theology of the Five Percenters. See the article on Hip hop and religion for a more in-depth discussion.
"Party rhymes", meant to pump up the crowd at a party, were nearly the exclusive focus of old school hip hop (with the exception of The Furious Five). Party raps remain a staple of hip hop music to this day. In addition to Party raps, rappers also tend to make references to love and sex. Love raps were first popularized by Spoonie Gee of the Treacherous Three, and later, in the golden age of hip hop, Big Daddy Kane, Heavy D, and LL Cool J would continue this tradition. 2 Live Crew, a Miami bass group, were among the first hip hop act to be temporarily banned in the United States, for the overtly sexual and profane content of their raps.
[edit] Performance
[edit] Flow
Rap delivery, or flow, is defined by prosody, cadence, and speed. Cadence deals with the dynamics and patterns of the rhythm. In addition to rubato (changes in tempo for the purpose of expression), cadence can also serve to reinforce song structure through ritardando (the graal slowing down of tempo). Old school rappers generally maintained a simple cadence, without much deviation,[17] while golden age rappers such as Rakim experimented extensively with cadence.[12] Present day popular rappers like Method Man, Snoop Dogg, Busta Rhymes and André 3000 are considered to have a versatile cadence because of their ability to rap over disparate beats equally well.
A common way MCs judge how to flow in a verse is by writing a rhyme so that the most stressed words coincide with the beats percussion, in a way that makes the rhyming sound more musical (as opposed to spoken word) and that better combines the MC's voice with the musical backdrop. Rakim -- whom many credit with changing the way most rappers flow on a song -- experimented not only with following the percussion, but also with complementing the song's melody with his own voice, making his flow sound like that of an instrument (a saxophone in particular.[18]
The ability to rap quickly and clearly is sometimes regarded as an important sign of skill. In certain hip hop subgenres such as chopped and sc
参考资料：http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rap
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By most accounts Herc was the first DJ to buy two copies of the same record for just a 15-second break (rhythmic instrumental segment) in the middle. By mixing back and forth between the two copies he was able to double, triple, or indefinitely extend the break. In so doing, Herc effectively deconstructed and reconstructed so-called found sound, using the turntable as a musical instrument.
While he was cutting with two turntables, Herc would also perform with the microphone in Jamaican toasting style-joking, boasting, and using myriad in-group references. Herc's musical parties eventually gained notoriety and were often documented on cassette tapes that were recorded with the relatively new boombox, or blaster, technology.
Taped plicates of these parties rapidly made their way through the Bronx, Brooklyn, and uptown Manhattan, spawning a number of similar DJ acts. Among the new breed of DJs was Afrika Bambaataa, the first important Black Muslim in rap. (The Muslim presence would become very influential in the late 1980s.) Bambaataa often engaged in sound-system battles with Herc, similar to the so-called cutting contests in jazz a generation earlier.
The sound system competitions were held at city parks, where hot-wired street lamps supplied electricity, or at local clubs. Bambaataa sometimes mixed sounds from rock-music recordings and television shows into the standard funk and disco fare that Herc and most of his followers relied upon. By using rock records, Bambaataa extended rap beyond the immediate reference points of contemporary black youth culture.
By the 1990s any sound source was considered fair game and rap artists borrowed sounds from such disparate sources as Israeli folk music, bebop jazz records, and television news broadcasts.
In 1976 Grandmaster Flash introced the technique In 1979 the first two rap records appeared: "King Tim III (Personality Jock)," recorded by the Fatback Band, and "Rapper's Delight," by Sugarhill Gang. A series of verses recited by the three members of Sugarhill Gang, "Rapper's Delight" became a national hit, reaching number 36 on the Billboard magazine popular music charts.
The spoken content, mostly braggadocio spiced with fantasy, was derived largely from a pool of material used by most of the earlier rappers. The backing track for "Rapper's Delight" was supplied by hired studio musicians, who replicated the basic groove of the hit song "Good Times" (1979) by the American disco group Chic. Perceived as novel by many white Americans, "Rapper's Delight" quickly inspired "Rapture" (1980) by the new-wave band Blondie, as well as a number of other popular records.
In 1982 Afrika Bambaataa's "Planet Rock" became the first rap record to use synthesizers and an electronic drum machine. With this recording, rap artists began to create their own backing tracks rather than simply offering the work of others in a new context. A year later Bambaataa introced the sampling capabilities of synthesizers on "Looking for the Perfect Beat" (1983).of quick mixing, in which sound bites as short as one or two seconds are combined for a collage effect.
Quick mixing paralleled the rapid-editing style of television advertising used at the time. Shortly after Flash introced quick mixing, his partner Grandmaster Melle Mel composed the first extended stories in rhymed rap. Up to this point, most of the words heard over the work of disc jockeys such as Herc, Bambaataa, and Flash had been improvised phrases and expressions. In 1978 DJ Grand Wizard Theodore introced the technique of scratching to proce rhythmic patterns.
Sampling brought into question the ownership of sound. Some artists claimed that by sampling recordings of a prominent black artist, such as funk musician James Brown, they were challenging white corporate America and the recording instry's right to own black cultural expression.
More problematic was the fact that rap artists were also challenging Brown's and other musicians' right to own, control, and be compensated for the use of their intellectual creations. By the early 1990s a system had come about whereby most artists requested permission and negotiated some form of compensation for the use of samples.
Some commonly sampled performers, such as funk musician George Clinton, released compact discs (CDs) containing dozens of sound bites specifically to facilitate sampling. One effect of sampling was a newfound sense of musical history among black youth. Earlier artists such as Brown and Clinton were celebrated as cultural heroes and their older recordings were reissued and repopularized.
During the mid-1980s, rap moved from the fringes of hip-hop culture to the mainstream of the American music instry as white musicians began to embrace the new style. In 1986 rap reached the top ten on the Billboard pop charts with "(You Gotta) Fight for Your Right (To Party!)" by the Beastie Boys and "Walk This Way" by Run-DMC and Aerosmith.
Known for incorporating rock music into its raps, Run-DMC became one of the first rap groups to be featured regularly on MTV (Music Television). Also ring the mid-1980s, the first female rap group of consequence, Salt-N-Pepa, released the singles "The Show Stoppa" (1985) and "Push It" (1987); "Push It" reached the top 20 on Billboard's pop charts. In the late 1980s a large segment of rap became highly politicized, resulting in the most overt social agenda in popular music since the urban folk movement of the 1960s.
The groups Public Enemy and Boogie Down Proctions epitomized this political style of rap. Public Enemy came to prominence with their second album, It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back (1988), and the theme song "Fight the Power" from the motion picture Do the Right Thing (1989),by American filmmaker Spike Lee. Proclaiming the importance of rap in black American culture, Public Enemy's lead singer, Chuck D., referred to it as the African American CNN (Cable News Network).
Alongside the rise of political rap came the introction of gangsta rap, which attempts to depict an outlaw lifestyle of sex, drugs, and violence in inner-city America. In 1988 the first major album of gangsta rap was released: Straight Outta Compton by the rap group NWA (Niggaz With Attitude). Songs from the album generated an extraordinary amount of controversy for their violent attitudes and inspired protests from a number of organizations, including the FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation).
However, attempts to censor gangsta rap only served to publicize the music and make it more attractive to both black and white youths. NWA became a platform for launching the solo careers of some of the most influential rappers and rap procers in the gangsta style, including Dr. Dre, Ice Cube, and Eazy-E.
In the 1990s rap became increasingly eclectic, demonstrating a seemingly limitless capacity to draw samples from any and all musical forms. A number of rap artists have borrowed from jazz, using samples as well as live music. Some of the most influential jazz-rap recordings include Jazzamatazz CD (1993), an album by Boston rapper Guru, and "Cantaloop (Flip Fantasia)" (1993), a single by the British group US3.
In the United Kingdom, jazz-rap evolved into a genre known as trip-hop, the most prominent artists and groups being Tricky and Massive Attack.
As rap became increasingly part of the American mainstream in the 1990s, political rap became less prominent while gangsta rap, as epitomized by the Geto Boys, Snoop Doggy Dogg, and Tupac Shakur, grew in popularity.
Since the mid-1980s rap music has greatly influenced both black and white culture in North America. Much of the slang of hip-hop culture, including such terms as dis, fly, def, chill, and wack, have become standard parts of the vocabulary of a significant number of young people of various ethnic origins. Many rap enthusiasts assert that rap functions as a voice for a community without access to the mainstream media.
According to advocates, rap serves to engender self-pride, self-help, and self-improvement, communicating a positive and fulfilling sense of black history that is largely absent from other American institutions.
Political rap artists have spurred interest in the Black Muslim movement as articulated by minister Louis Farrakhan, generating much criticism from those who view Farrakhan as a racist.
Gangsta rap has also been severely criticised for lyrics that many people interpret as glorifying the most violent and misogynistic (woman-hating) imagery in the history of popular music.
The style's popularity with middle-class whites has been attacked as vicarious thrill-seeking of the most insidious sort. Defenders of gangsta rap argue that no matter who is listening to the music, the raps are justified because they accurately portray life in inner-city America.
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